StainExpert: A Unified Multi-Expert Diffusion Framework for Multi-Target Pathological Stain Translation

Histopathological analysis constitutes the diagnostic cornerstone in disease characterization, employing diverse staining methodologies to elucidate tissue architecture. While hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) remains the foundational technique, ancillary modalities, including specialized histochemical stains, immune-histochemistry (IHC), and multiplex immune-fluorescence (mpIF), yield critical complementary data essential for comprehensive diagnosis. Nevertheless, sequential implementation of these techniques necessitates protracted processing times, substantial labor investment, and significant tissue consumption, often requiring serial sectioning with iterative staining procedures that compromise sample integrity. To address these challenges, we propose StainExpert, a unified multimodal diffusion framework for source-to-multi-target pathological stain translation. Unlike existing approaches that require separate models for each staining pair, StainExpert establishes the first multi-expert system where specialized networks collaboratively learn staining principles while maintaining domain-specific expertise. Through multi-expert and multi-objective optimization, it enables efficient translation from a single source to multiple targets. Additionally, our multimodal diffusion architecture integrates textual guidance with visual features, achieving superior accuracy and pathology-informed translation. Leveraging parameter-efficient design and model distillation, StainExpert matches GAN-level efficiency while delivering superior generation quality. We validate StainExpert across three datasets spanning H&E, special stains, IHC, and mpIF modalities. Extensive evaluation demonstrates that StainExpert generates high-quality virtual stains that preserve critical pathological features for accurate diagnosis. Beyond robust cross-domain generalization, StainExpert offers a transformative platform for efficient multi-target stain translation, advancing toward streamlined, tissue-conserving, and resource-efficient diagnostic workflows in computational pathology. The code is available at https://rowerliu.github.io/StainExpert.