Nonylphenol occurrence, distribution, toxicity and analytical methods in freshwater

Nonylphenol is a typical endocrine-disrupting chemical that has received considerable attention from government officials, scientists and the public due to its estrogenicity and ubiquitous occurrence in water environments. Here we review the current knowledge on nonylphenol occurrence, distribution, toxic effects and water quality criteria related to the protection of freshwater organisms. Nonylphenol enters the water ecosystem mainly via wastewater treatment plant effluents, agricultural runoff, groundwater discharge from air, soil, water and agricultural sources. Toxic effects of nonylphenol on aquatic organisms include acute toxic effects, growth and development effects, estrogenic effect and reproductive effects, neurotoxicity, liver toxicity and immunotoxicity.