From lunar regolith samples to infrastructure: Insights into in-situ construction technologies on the moon

As global lunar exploration efforts transition toward sustained human activities on the Moon, establishing permanent bases and advancing in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) have become key objectives. Among the lunar resources, regolith, abundant and easily accessible, has emerged as the primary candidate for infrastructure construction. However, before practical deployment of construction technologies on the lunar surface, it is essential to thoroughly understand the physical, chemical, and thermal properties of lunar regolith, which directly influence its behavior during processing and consolidation. Such understanding relies heavily on the analysis of real lunar samples. Yet, the scarcity and non-renewable nature of these authentic samples significantly limit their widespread experimental use. To overcome this constraint, researchers have developed lunar regolith simulants (LRS) that aim to replicate the key characteristics of genuine lunar soil and enable reliable ground-based studies. Among the various consolidation techniques explored using these simulants, sintering and melting have emerged as particularly promising approaches, as they theoretically allow complete utilization of LRS without requiring additional terrestrial binders or additives. Although significant progress has been achieved in understanding and optimizing these processes, substantial challenges remain—including the development of high-fidelity LRS that accurately reflect the complex characteristics of real lunar soil. Additionally, precise control of processing parameters, scalability of forming techniques, and the long-term durability of consolidated structures under extreme lunar environmental conditions remain critical issues to address. This review summarizes progress in simulant development, evaluates sintering technologies, and identifies critical challenges for future lunar infrastructure construction.