Advanced sustainable triboelectric nanogenerators for biomedical and clinical applications: In vivo treatments, in vitro therapeutics, and assisted rehabilitations

Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) offer innovative solutions for biomedical applications, enabling self-powered systems for implantable devices, in vitro treatments, and rehabilitation aids. By harvesting biomechanical energy through triboelectric and electrostatic induction, TENGs eliminate the need for conventional batteries, providing sustainable, efficient, and adaptable self-powered systems for healthcare. Moreover, sustainable materials are degradable, biocompatible, renewable, environmentally friendly, and functionally adjustable. As they degrade in the natural environment, they remain non-toxic and harmless to biological tissues, making them suitable for biomedical applications. These materials come from a wide range of sources, such as natural polymers, plant-based materials and degradable synthetic polymers, with good processability and stability. Therefore, the TENG based on sustainable materials not only provides a green energy solution, but also meets the needs for safety, flexibility and durability in the biomedical field, making it ideal for future medical technology development. This review systematically categorizes sustainable materials into three key sources: terrestrial, marine, and synthetic polymers, emphasizing their versatility and eco-friendly properties. We explore their role in vivo treatments, in vitro therapeutics, and assisted rehabilitations, highlighting their critical role in addressing key medical challenges. Finally, this review has provided the challenges and future directions for integrating sustainable TENGs into the healthcare system, which is expected to have a transformative impact on environmentally conscious medical ecosystem and promote next-generation healthcare solutions.