EXPLORING SIMILARITIES BETWEEN GENERAL SYSTEMS: CONCEPTS, PROPERTIES AND IMPLICATIONS

Similarity phenomena are ubiquitous. From nature to social organizations, from biology to human behavior, various similarities exist. How should we define the essential similarity behind these phenomena? What are the properties of similarity? How to make use of similarity and what should be grasped in the application of similarity? Understanding similarity offers insights into both theoretical and practical aspects of systems. Exploring similarity helps us grasp universal principles and commonalities among different entities. Furthermore, examining similarities across different systems can yield valuable insights and experiences, facilitating system regulation from a similarity-based perspective. Therefore, studying the similarity behind phenomena not only deepens our understanding of the world but also offers critical support and guidance for solving practical problems. Similarity refers to the comparative relationship attribute where two or more entities exhibit a certain degree of likeness in specific aspects (attributes or laws). The denotation of similarity can encompass entities and phenomena across all fields and levels of both natural and artificial systems. Similarity is characterized by systematicity, comparability, hierarchy, degree, dynamism, adaptability, causality, and relativity. This study proposes regulating systems from a similarity perspective, controlling the degree of similarity to ensure that system structures and functions meet expectations, which provides significant insights. Finally, this paper presents application studies of system similarity in multiple fields. Overall, this study helps reveal the universal principles and fundamental laws of similarity between general systems, promoting the interdisciplinary development of system science and the application and practice of solving complex problems.